Summary of Video Lecture about: ORIENTALISM BY EDWARD SAID

The 40 minutes video about Orientalism by Edward Said from Columbia University basically explains about Orientalism which considered as a new field of study and is also quite controversial. Orientalism was also the title of his book published in 1978 which has been influential ever since. It is trying to answer the question of why when we think about Middle East, for example, we would have a preconceived idea of how the people there, how they live, how they act, even though we have never been there before.

Edward Said discusses the traditional views of western people about eastern cultures and discusses the influences that have led people to think the way that they do. Said finds many answers in the tradition of western imperialism that began in the 17th century. Particular attention is paid to the demonization of Islam and makes people of Islam in Middle East appear different and threatening. Orientalism envisioned all Eastern societies as fundamentally similar one to another, and fundamentally the opposite of the Western societies.

Different type of Orientalism is an effect of different experience with the orient itself. Orientalism by Britain and France on one hand is different with the US on the other. Britain and France have long standing relationship during the colonization in the orients, like Britain and India, or France and Algeria. Both countries had directly occupied parts of the orient. Meanwhile the US experience with the orient is less direct, as there has never been full US occupation of the Middle East. Edward Said believes that US orientalism is more into political reason due to relationship between US and Israel. In all movies created by the US, the picture of the Middle East and Islam is always portrayed as terrorism with violence and irrational acts. It is more to racism towards Moslem people, which is fully supported by journalists and Hollywood.

Until now after almost 20 years from Edward Said created his book entitled “Covering Islam”, the impression of Islam is getting worse in the US as if all Moslem’s main business it to threaten and kill all Americans. The tragedy of World Trade Center has always been blamed to the action of Islamic terrorism, where Moslem Jihad act is accused to be the main cause of the tragedy, and it has been reported by journalists both printed and electronic in a way that Islam is being demonized. The generalization never happens to the Oklahoma bombing that involves Christian fundamentalist.

Edward Said created 3 books entitled; Orientalism, Covering Islam, and The Question of Palestine. 

Analysis on Free Market

The world is becoming more globalized, there is no doubt about that. It is true that people say the world is becoming smaller due to the existence of technology and its impacts. A student from Indonesia could easily interact and share interests with another student in Middle East, a single housewife from Vietnam could search for Mexican recipe in some blogs and try cooking, or a Burmese artist can now sell his or her art products in European market. Around the globe all kind of individuals and groups are connected easily and no single crisis could slow down their activities, not even an economic crisis. As quoted from Nairn (2009) in one of his articles entitled ‘Globalization’, Globalization is such a diverse, broad-based, and potent force that not even today's massive economic crash will dramatically slow it down or permanently reverse it. Love it or hate it, globalization is here to stay.

In his critics, Nairn explained that globalization is the cause of today’s financial collapse, growing inequality, and insecurity around the world. The cost of globalization is suffered by most nations, which eventually bring international integration in the effort to minimize the costs. The nations becoming international community which collectively think of actions to be taken in a global level for every world’s challenge.

Just like what happened in Southeast Asia as a region. With countries that are culturally rich, this region got huge influence by both internal and international forces that significantly change the countries’ society, culture, economy, environment, and many other aspects. This was chronologically explained by Schmidt and Rasiah (2010) in their book entitled ‘The New Political Economy of Southeast Asia’.

In their book, Schmidt and Rasiah mentioned that in fact ASEAN was formed in 1967 to strengthen ties among the free market economies. They also emphasized that  Political alliances changed dramatically when the Cold War ended following the collapse of the Soviet Union as the former command economies of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia quickly inserted themselves into ASEAN and the regional trade integration process that was begun in 1991, i.e. the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA). This was becoming the hope for countries with underemployment or unemployment problem, such as the Philippines, Timor Leste, Indonesia, and Myanmar. The free trade area was once expected to open more job opportunities to Southeast Asian citizens.

The region dreamt of having a single market to share together, where there will be no restrictions in competing among private businesses all across the region. Buyers and sellers are allowed to do transaction freely based on a mutual agreement on price without state intervention in the form of taxes, subsidies or regulation. Ideally the market will have no interference, except by the forces of demand and supply.

As explained on an online article posted on http://smallbusiness.chron.com/ by Gerald Hanks entitled ‘Explain the Advantages & Disadvantages of Free Market Economies’, free market economies allow business owners to innovate new ideas, develop new products and offer new services. Instead of government-enforced price controls, as seen in many socialist and communist countries, a free market economy allows the relationships between product supply and consumer demand to dictate prices. The lack of government control allows free market economies a wide range of freedoms, but these also come with some distinct drawbacks. The objective for any company in a free market economy is to make profit. In many cases, companies may sacrifice worker safety, environmental standards and ethical behavior to achieve those profits.

An online article by Laurel Teo (2014) entitled ‘ASEAN as a Single Market: What, When, How, and Really?’ published on https://blogs.cfainstitute.org pointed out several highlights of ASEAN potential as listed below:

·         Combined GDP of US$2.4 trillion in 2013, making it the seventh-largest economy in the world if it were a country. Projected to be fourth largest by 2050.

·         Population of 600 million, ahead of North America or the European Union. Labour force is third largest in the world, behind only China and India.

·         Almost 60% of total growth since 1990 has been derived from productivity gains.

·         ASEAN’s five key members (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand) together pulled in more foreign direct investments than China in 2013 (US$128 billion vs US$117 billion)

The idea of ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) will be focusing on capital markets. When implemented, the measures proposed will ensure that within ASEAN: Capital can move freely across borders, issuers are free to raise capital anywhere, and Investors can invest anywhere.

Theoretically the idea of AEC is so ideal and almost too good to be true, the blue print is there but the implementation is going slowly in terms of speed and extent. Most of people in the world convinced that a full integration of AEC will not happen by the end of 2015. The ASEAN governments can only open doors, clear trade barriers, and prepare the infrastructure. This would only be an empty frame, however, without the private sector’s involvement.

 

REFERENCES

Hanks, Gerald. Explain the Advantages & Disadvantages of Free Market Economies. Retrieved from: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/explain-advantages-disadvantages-market-economies-70553.html

Nairn, Moses. (2009). Globalization. ProQuest Social Science Journal. Retrieved from: http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2057/docview/224027022?pq-origsite=summon

Schmidt, Johannes Dragsbaek & Rasiah, Rajah. (2010). The New Political Economy of Southeast Asia. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Retrieved from: http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2066/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzM0Mzg0Nl9fQU41?sid=7e14d16b-08a7-42dd-a092-0d8fa3d242c9@sessionmgr110&vid=0&format=EB&lpid=lp_1&rid=0

Teo, Laurel. (2014). ASEAN as a Single Market: What, When, How, and Really?. Retrieved from https://blogs.cfainstitute.org/marketintegrity/2014/06/21/asean-as-a-single-market-what-when-how-and-really/

Persuassive Speech: Allowing the Use of Gadgets for Children

If I may ask parents: do you allow your kids to use gadgets? The possible answers may be divided into two groups; the pros and the cons. Those who are not allowing kids to use gadgets would say that gadgets will prevent the motor skills development of toddlers that will affect their future learning skills. Small kids should be exposed to use pencil, crayon, and spending time drawing instead of typing, pointing, clicking, and touching screens. Most of them also believe that gadget addiction for kids could create brain damage that causes them hard to concentrate and lead to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Other effect that is also feared by the cons is gadgets have the potential to hold back children’s development in language skills, social interaction skills, and creativity.

They also would feel some kind of affirmation knowing that Steve Jobs himself limited the use of gadgets to his own children. In a Sunday article, New York Times reporter Nick Bilton said he once assumingly asked Jobs, “So your kids must love the iPad?” Jobs responded: “They haven’t used it. We limit how much technology our kids use at home.”

In one article by Sarah Lesnar (2014) posted on http://nextshark.com/, in Silicon Valley, there is actually a trend of technology experts and engineers who shield their kids from technology. They even send their kids to non-tech schools like the Waldorf School in Los Altos, where computers aren’t found anywhere because they only focus on hands-on learning.

As oppose to those strong statements mentioned above, I believe that children, starting from young age, should be introduced to technology, including televisions, computers, phones, and other electronic devices. Kids nowadays are called as digital natives, net generation, the Google generation, or the millenials. All of these terms are being used to highlight the significance and importance of new technologies within the lives of young people (Gibbons, 2007). The technology has become part of their world that cannot be easily separated from them as it will also create a fundamental change in the way people communicate, socialize, create, and learn in the future. Children nowadays will be living in the world with such characteristic, and we need to give them sufficient knowledge to be able to adapt in such world.

An article by Divya Dave and Avnish Dave (2011) entitled “Electronic Media and Child Behaviour” mentioned that in today’s society, electronic media are thoroughly integrated into the fabric of life, with television, movies, videos, music, video games, and computers, central to both work and play. The article focuses on how actually gadgets or media could be used as third parent or servant in providing education and entertainment to children, despite the negative impacts that they would bring. The negative impacts of media would appear with the influence of lot of aspects related to media exposure and child behavior. Parents will still be the most important player in the behavior modification of the children.

The article also gave tips on managing children’s media consumption, such as; be alert of the content of media that the children use, avoid using gadgets as baby sitter and plan some other fun activities instead, and limit the use of the media. It also encouraged parents to be active and talk with children while they’re accessing the program in their gadgets. Co-viewing adults can make gadgets use an active process and even facilitate learning out of it. Take time to discuss the game they are playing, ask the children how they feel about what they observe from the program. Somehow this experience could be an opportunity to share feelings and grow closer to the children. The parents should also be media/gadget literate to be able set explicit guidelines for appropriate use of gadgets. Not only that, parents should set good example for the children by also limiting their own use of gadgets and apply the set guidelines.

They conclude that media technology can be used effectively as a teaching tool in school but the results depend on how teachers use the technology and their own comfort level with the media. Attention to television appears to be closely related to the child’s understanding of the contents. Content if designed correctly can enhance learning. Transfer of learning from TV is possible only if the child understands the contents, remembers it and sees it in relation to the new problem.

Another research that may affirm my statement was conducted by Marie Evans Schmidt and Elizabeth Vandewater (2008). The research reviews on links between various types of electronic media and the cognitive skills of school-aged children and adolescents. One central finding of studies to date, they say, is that the content delivered by electronic media is far more influential than the media themselves. Several key findings of this research are that many parents believe in the educational value of electronic media/gadgets, majority of parents have seen their children imitate behavior from TV, and they are more likely to see the children copy pro-social rather than aggressive behaviors. Another finding shows that the influence of electronic media and technology on youthful learning and cognitive development cannot be summarized, it turns out that content matters. High-quality educational television programs seem to have positive effects for children’s learning, academic skills, and academic engagement.

Ellen Helsper and Rebecca Enyon (2009) in their research entitled “Digital Natives: Where is the Evidence?” stated that younger people do have a greater range of ICTs in their household, tend to use the Internet as a first port of call, have higher levels of Internet self-efficacy, multi-task more, and use the Internet for fact checking and formal learning activities. This research believes that parents do have an important role in supporting their own children’s use of technology.

Recently the term ‘Digital Citizenship’ appears and went viral on the net. Definition of Digital Citizenship itself defines by Mike S. Ribble, Gerald D. Bailey, and Tweed W. Ross (2014) as the norms of behavior with regard to technology use. The main objective is to address appropriate technology behavior to society, particularly to younger generation.

International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) gives us a starting point. ISTE’s National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) believes that the standards for students, teachers, and administrators all address social and ethical issues. It covers three very broad areas:

1.       Students understand the ethical, cultural, and societal issues related to technology.

2.       Students practice responsible use of technology systems, information, and software.

3.       Students develop positive attitudes toward technology applications that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits, and productivity.

All three of these areas are very important and help form students’ technological development. Digital citizenship has become a priority for schools that see technology integration as a major teaching and learning strategy for preparing students to live and work in the 21st century.

Not only parents and teachers who need to take role in creating safe technological environment to the younger generation, government should also take part in implementing regulations. As discussed in a paper by Sandra L Calvert (2008) entitled ‘Children as Consumers: Advertising and Marketing’ government provide some protection for children from advertising and marketing practices. Regulators exert more control over content on scarce television airwaves that belong to the public than over content on the more open online spaces. This should also be applied to the contents on the net.

REFERENCES

Dave, Divya and Dave, Avnish. 2011. Electronic Media and Child Behaviour. National journal of media research vol 1 Issue 2 Oct – Dec 2011: ISSN 2249 4995. Retrieved from: http://njmr.in/uploads/1-2_87-89.pdf

Escobar-Chaves, Soledad Liliana & Anderson, Craig A.(2008). Media and Risky Behaviors. The Future of Children Princeton - Brookings volume 18 number 1 spring 2008. Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21338011

Helsper, Ellen & Enyon, Rebecca. (2009). Digital natives: where is the evidence? Retrieved from: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/27739/1/Digital_natives_(LSERO).pdf

Lesnar, Sarah. (2014). Why Steve Jobs Didn’t Let His Kids Use iPads (And Why You Shouldn’t Either). Retrieved from: http://nextshark.com/why-steve-jobs-didnt-let-his-kids-use-ipads-and-why-you-shouldnt-either/

Ribble, Mike S., Bailey, Gerald D., & Ross, Tweed W. (2004). Digital Citizenship Addressing Appropriate Technology Behavior. Retrieved from: http://www.digitalcitizenship.net/uploads/1stLL.pdf

Schmidt, Marie Evans & Vandewater, Elizabeth A. (2008). Media and Attention, Cognition, and School Achievement. The Future of Children Princeton - Brookings volume 18 number 1 spring 2008. Retrieved from: https://www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/publications/docs/18_01_04.pdf

International Media Studies - FINAL EXAM

In what way international media and communication have changed our modern world? 

International media and communication have been transformed by technology and the opportunity it offers over the past twenty years or so. Social media is the latest powerful tool emerges that change the path. The invention of computer and internet has opened more access to information. Powered by these changes, news has become 24 hours a day; it is immediate, available on new platforms, and mobile.

Some influences of international media and communication are believed to have contributed high speed changes to the world today. Some impacts have directly influenced the media themselves, and some others impacted mostly to the people. Some of the impacts listed by William Hachten in his book entitled “The World News Prism” among others;

• Since their winning towards the Communist, the Western concept of journalism and mass communication has become the dominant model throughout the world. One possible reason is due to the audience of Western journalism are covering worldwide. Another reason is because the science of journalism and mass communication is coming from the West, so that the non-Western countries have only adopted all aspects of the science.
• Although the political indoctrination by media has been rejected by most people, but entertainment and leisure are conditionally being accepted worldwide. People enjoy pop music, movies, and other kind of entertainment presented on TV. Therefore it is believed that mass culture is being accepted and that the world’s culture is becoming more and more homogenous.
• International media also has impact on Cold War. The media served interesting entertainment and modern lifestyle to society which leads to the image of a better life. Many experts agree that this has contributed to the demise of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe.
• More and more people becoming information elites in the world nowadays. It is nearly impossible for any government to prevent the flow of information to the people. The global audiences are continuously growing annually.
• International media has created vast audiences for global events. An event happening in one country could be easily watched by people in any part of the world. The media has open the chances for more people to be global audience
• People reacts faster to important events as the information also move so fast. Actions that usually happen in a longer time, now accelerated to a faster pace. The media has speeded up the history.
• The term “The whole world watching” really does apply. People are carrying camera and video recorder in their pockets now and they can easily take any record on events that they see. People cannot do reckless things as the whole world might be watching them through other people’s lenses.
• One big impact of international media and communication is that it has change diplomacy. Nonstop coverage by the media has provides the opportunity to monitor news events constantly and disseminate timely diplomatic information. For example people in the US watch starving children in Africa which resulted in them pushing the government to help and intervene to manage the problem.
• Technology has changed the media and the access to information. No authoritarian regimes can maintain a monopoly and censorship to their people. The news and information are unstoppable through the internet, TV, radio, and by other means.
• People can even contribute their own story and information to their own audiences using their independent tools. Anyone can recorded one event and publish the video to youtube or blogs which became viral worldwide.
• “Copycat” effect of one particular event might also happen in other part of the world. What worrying is if some imitative acts occur with negative consequences, like a car bombing in a country which widely televised has inspired other terrorist to conduct the same deed elsewhere.
• As the international media become global, the two mass communication arms of the Western; Advertising and Public relations have become globalized too. Although they received many critics, those two components of communication play an important role in market economies and open societies.

What are the impacts of international media and communication in international relations? 

Majid Tehranian in his book entitled “Global Communication and World Politics” mentioned that the effects of global communication on the evolution of international relations theory have been twofold. On the one hand, global communication has empowered the peripheries of power to engage progressively in the international discourse on the aims and methods of the international system. On the other hand, global communication has also served as a channel for theoretical integration.

Global communication nowadays has brought many effects in many aspects of life. One of them is that international media could become an auxiliary instrument in international relations, like in public diplomacy. Public diplomacy defined as government’s overt efforts to influence other governments. As mentioned by Tehranian in one of his articles published on The International Journal of Peace Studies entitled “Global Communication and International Relations: Changing Paradigms and Policies” Global communication seems to have generated new types of diplomacy. The global reach of broadcasting by such networks as CNN, the BBC, Star TV, the Voice of America, Radio Moscow, and Radio Beijing, seems to have led to a shift of emphasis from power politics to image politics. As John F Kennedy once ever said: “a videotape is more potent than ten thousand words.”

The media becoming so powerful with their pattern of story-telling that it can play a multiple role in the formation of foreign policies. It seems to have mutual advantages with the need of the government in using media to restrict, enhance, or manipulate information and coverage. It could be seen through media's role in such post-Cold War crises as the Persian Gulf War, Somalia, Bosnia, and Chechnya.

It also happens during the Vietnam War, the first ever televised war, when the media gradually turn against US government’s policies. It created protests within the people in the country, especially when the media covered all the body bags that were returned home, and the atrocities of the war which were being televised.

Leaders of countries are no longer feeling the need of meeting face to face or in conventional way. Some of the examples mentioned by Tehranian are the use of television as a channel for sending messages to the opposite side by the leaders of the U.S. and Iraq during the Gulf War, the employment of CNN as a source of information and intelligence gathering by foreign and defense policy leaders, and the testing of "trial balloon" proposals via the mass media are examples of such uses of public diplomacy at times of crisis. It can be concluded that even the media is not the only way of doing diplomacy, but the governments are aware with the potential benefits and risk of the media.

As the technology is always updated with the latest sophisticated phenomenon, the most current diplomacy also known as virtual diplomacy is involving global audio, video, and teleconferencing system. The technology has allowed numerous official and unofficial contacts on a routine basis among the governments and other high authorities. The facilities offered by technology has proven that diplomacy has its new tools to be used.

One example that I experienced myself regarding virtual diplomacy happened in my own office. I work for a regional center of education which covers Southeast Asia in the field of Open and Distance Learning (ODL). The center has responsibility to find alternative solutions for educational matters within the region through the advancement use of ODL. Annually the center invites selected ODL experts from the 10 Southeast Asian countries to sit together (at their own countries’ cost) to discuss, monitor, and evaluate the programs and activities conducted by the center to the countries. Last year one of the experts coming from Myanmar could not attend the annual meeting due to budget restriction from the respective government. The centre decided to use teleconferencing system so the Burmese expert could still follow the meeting as well as giving inputs to the work of the regional center.


We also have discussed the developing and underdeveloped countries’ complaints against developing countries’ dominant control of information that led to the rise of New World Information Order (NWIO). Does this imbalanced control of information have impact in the capacity of a country in furthering its international interests in the spheres of politics, economy and culture?

All the media channels are actually set and decide the story to influence the way we think, decide what things we need to buy, and tell how we should behave. Furthermore it can even be a propaganda tool used by certain governments or political elites. All big media’s influence is coming from the West Countries, which creates complaints from the developing and less developed countries.

Issues, economic, arts, entertainment, politics, and many more. Those are aspects or topics that being discussed and published by broadcasting mass media. Is it true that the broadcasting mass media are being controlled by the core countries or high developed countries? Is it true that media nowadays are already balanced?

In the less developed countries development and growth of media have been really slow due to the poverty, poor health, illiteracy, less qualified human resources and facilities, etc. They also are not exposed to such infrastructure and high tech tools to travel on the information and news. Meanwhile the rapid transformation of technology has created more gaps between the rich and poor nations. That is what happening in Africa, some part of Asia and Latin America where some of the population of the countries are still illiterate and the term of ‘free flow of information’ has very little practical meaning.

Global communication at the turn of 21st century has brought various effects to the world. Western countries who lead the major world media are surely getting their advantages by their role in ruling the flow of information. According to Tehranian the impact to economy is the most studied and best known as the phenomenon has reshaped the process of world production, distribution, and trade in the world. It is one of the reasons which enable the existence of Trans-National Corporations. The developing countries with developing economy in the third world countries; such as China, Taiwan, South Korea, Malaysia and Indonesia are also gaining benefits from the global communication. They enjoy economic growth using the new information and technologies as the engines. More opportunities of career changings are also available as the impact of international communication as the flow of information has changed the system and structural employment. Nowadays, one person could have many careers and job.

In educational and science perspective, international communication has created a new system that allows lifelong learning and education for all using open learning system. Technologies have cut of the process of knowledge transfers. Better educational system will develop the qualification of human resources, which would definitely lead one country to a better economy.

The impact of global communication on international culture life is perhaps the most visible one. The modern and sophisticated western lifestyle which represents a better life was brought to other part of the world and has created followers, especially from the youngsters. For example, MTV musical videos with their postmodern messages of sensuality, pluralism, and skepticism were able to reach audience from Islamic countries. The flow of information is so aggressive and cannot be stopped even by the authorities.

These accesses to better economy, better education, entertainment and opportunities impacted from the global communication could only be enjoyed by certain and limited western countries that dominantly control the information flow. According to Ulla Carlsson in her article entitled “The MacBride Report in the Rear-view Mirror”, in the mid-1970s the non-aligned countries demanded for two-way flow of information and actually submitted a proposal to UNESCO demanding a “New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)” as an extension of already voiced demands for a new world economic order. They were aware that there’s an electronic colonialism happening or the shifting of their cultures.

The role of NWICO is a way to spread much information from around the world so fast that everyone in the world will be informed about the news. This information is diverse, so NWICO owns a role as a spreader of information and communication from every direction to every part of the world.

The concept of NWICO was then became a leading theme in global media policy debates from 1970s to 1990s. As mentioned by Kaarlee Nordenstreng in his writing entitled “Lesson Learned from the NWICO Process”, the debates started in diplomatic forums of the developing countries, particularly the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and extended to professional and academic circles so that in the 1980s NWICO was part and parcel of the discourse on the media’s role in society and the world at large. By the new millennium, however, it disappeared from the agenda, to be replaced by concepts such as media globalization. In the 2010s, NWICO already belongs to the history of the field – a history that keeps re-emerging under a different aegis.

Nordenstreng also emphasized that in general NWICO was a kind of slogan which has political meaning. Why slogan? Because the concept of NWICO was fairly moderate and liberal, it was not very radical and revolutionary. It was rather social democratic reformist concept of communication. It implies that there is a big order waiting to be changed or reformed, not in a revolutionary way by exploding it into pieces and put in a completely new concept, but sort of corrective efforts.

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References

Bakhurst, K. (2011). How has social media changed the way newsrooms work? Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2011/09/ibc_in_amsterdam.html

Carlsson, U. (2003). The MacBride Report in the Rear-view Mirror. Quaderns del CAC: Issue 21. Retrieved from: http://www.cac.cat/pfw_files/cma/recerca/quaderns_cac/Q21carlsson_EN.pdf

Hachten, W., Hachten, H., Scotton, J F. (1999). The World News Prism: Changing Media of International Communication. Iowa, USA: Iowa State University Press.

Tehranian, M. (1997). Global Communication and International Relations: Changing Paradigms and Policies. Retrieved from: http://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol2_1/Techrenian.htm

Tehranian, M. (1999). Global Communication and World Politics: Domination, Development, and Discourse. Lynne Rienner Pub.

The Future of ASEAN: A Multi-angle Approach Seen from the Tourism Perspective

Background

Southeast Asia, an interesting sub-region of Asia continent, is a group of growing nations developing very rapidly in many sectors, including tourism. The region is covered with dense jungle, beautiful beaches, and has so many incredible wildlife. As a developing region, Southeast Asia got many challenges; one of them is the environmental challenge. The local environment should be at the top of priorities for Southeast Asian countries to be preserved as the natural resources is fundamental for the region.

The significance of regional tourism to the Southeast Asian nations is on the rise in recent decades as a development tool at regional and local level. Tourism plays an important role to the regional economic development of Southeast Asian countries. Even most of the countries are heavily rely on tourism for their economies.

There are ten independent countries in Southeast Asia region: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, The Philippines, and Vietnam. Each country has its own enchantment, and blessed with natural flora and fauna. Southeast Asian countries are endowed with improved tourist resources and attractions, for instance, attractive beaches with pristine blue water, sunny and warm weather, inimitable tropical and wildlife a mixer of exotic and distinctive cultures.

According to Mazumder, Sultana and Al-Mamun (2003) in their research entitled Regional Tourism Development in Southeast Asia, the growth in the distribution of tourist arrivals by each of the Southeast Asian country during 2001-2011 is quite high. During the period in concern Malaysia received the highest number of visitor arrivals (203.2 million) followed by Thailand (145.5 million) and Singapore (93.8 million). Other countries share of visitor arrivals are Indonesia (62.7 million), Vietnam (35.8 million), Philippines (29.9 million), Cambodia (16.8 million), Lao PDR (13.5 million), Myanmar (2.5 million), and Brunei Darussalam (1.7 million).

Table 1. Visitor arrivals by country of destination, 2001-2011 (in million)

According to the research result above, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore are among the most visited countries in Southeast Asia.

Tourist Attraction in Southeast Asian Nations

Brunei Darussalam

Picture 1. Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque

Brunei Darussalam is the smallest country in the region, in terms of area of coverage. Located in Borneo Island, it shares location with Malaysia and Indonesia. Bandar Seri Begawan is the capital of the country, a city steeped in quiet respect, grounded in Islamic tradition, and exuding a sense of peace that makes it one of Asia’s most distinctive capital cities. With the Malays forming the biggest ethnic group in Brunei Darussalam, Malay or Bahasa Melayu is the national and official language of the country; yet at the same time, English is widely spoken and understood particularly in the business community.

As a prosperous oil and gas producing nation with a small, peace loving population ruled by His Majesty the Sultan of Brunei, Brunei is a safe, stable, healthy, wholesome and sincerely hospitable society. Brunei has a clean and pollution free environment with no traffic jams and un-crowded streets, also a healthy lifestyle, make Brunei a perfect getaway for short holidays or for a break from the hectic pace of urban living. Brunei can also nicely complement multi-destination trips to Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Manila, Bali, Dubai or any other destination in the Royal Brunei Airlines regional network, or can be an attractive stopover on the way to or from Australia and New Zealand.

Bandar Seri Begawan is the center of Brunei’s commerce, finance and government. In many ways, it is also the heart of Brunei’s cultural landscape, housing some of the nation’s most revered landmarks. The city’s breathtaking Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque is a stunning tribute to the nation’s deep-rooted faith, while the truly Bruneian Kampong Ayer water village offers a glimpse of the nation’s quaint Asian charm.

Another famous attraction of Brunei Darussalam is Jerudong Park Playground, the state-of-the-art amusement park that was once the playground of royalty which is located in Brunei-Muara. The country also has natural beauty in Tutong called Pantai Seri Kenangan beach covered with white sands and rocky outcroppings. But the true draw of Tutong is its people. Local colour abounds at the Ruma Budaya cultural village, showcasing the five ethnic Bornean groups that make up the district’s diverse population.

Based on my personal opinion from my previous visits to Brunei Darussalam, one of the drawbacks in tourism that Brunei owns is lack of public transportation system. Tourists will find it hard to travel from one place to another if they do not rent a van or have some accompany from local people. Brunei actually has three forms of public transport - public buses, taxis, and water taxis - which are all lacking in coverage, efficiency and quality that limit its attractiveness to local and foreign users.

However, according to an article published on http://news.asiaone.com on December 25, 2014 entitled “Brunei's public transport system to undergo reforms”, Brunei Darussalam has embarked on a journey to overhaul its public transport system this year. With the launch of the Land Transport Master Plan and Land Transport White Paper, the public transport system is expected to see changes that promise a more integrated, rapid and efficient transport network. Several improvements to the public transport system were proposed, including a new Bus Rapid Transit System and a taxi franchise. This effort would lead to a better service for tourism industry in Brunei Darussalam in the upcoming future.

Cambodia

Unlike Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia has quite many prospective resources for tourists’ attraction. One of its well-known temple located in Siem Reap is Angkor Wat which is also listed in World Wonder List. According to Cambodia’s official tourism website, http://www.tourismcambodia.com/, Angkor Wat was built in the first half of the 12th century (113-5BC). Estimated construction time of the temple is 30 years by King Suryavarman II, and It is generally accepted that Angkor Wat was a funerary temple for King Suryavarman II. Wat is the Khmer name for temple, aside than Angkor Wat, there are plenty other beautiful temples in Cambodia which draws ever-increasingly tourists from all over the world.

Picture 2. Angkor Wat

The capital of the Kingdom of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, is located at the confluence of three rivers - the Mekong, the Bassac and Tonle Sap. Every year, the reversal of the river is celebrated with the country's most spectacular Water Festival in November. The ceremony last for three days to provide opportunity for people to be part in competition, and there were to types of boats from near and far of provinces, taking part in the races. During the nighttime, multicolor fireworks were lit to entertain people. Khmer people believed that the lively festive atmosphere helped relive the tension and trouble.

Over the past four years, the city has undergone tremendous changes - businesses are springing up constantly and tourism is once again booming. Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Cambodia’s economy; therefore some urgent actions need to be taken to improve this sector. One article in http://www.phnompenhpost.com/ entitled “Tackling Tourism Issues”, Cambodia is lacking of tour guides who can converse in the Korean language, while Korean tourists is increasing by numbers. Ngov Seng Kak, director of the Tourism Department in Siem Reap said, “Cambodia still needs to improve human resources in regard to the Korean language, and other languages such as Vietnam and Russian. But we respect our Cambodian guides because only they can describe the truth of our history to tourists.”

Another problem also discussed in the article is the ever increasing number of Angkor Wat visitors by 2020. Cambodia expects visitor numbers to the Kingdom to increase to about 7 million tourists annually, with 4 million visiting Siem Reap Angkor. The Tourism Ministry needs to figure out the way to manage the temple with this massive flow of the tourists and to find the best method to protect the temples. Commitment from the government to create rule and regulation to preserve the temples and other natural resources is urgently needed.

Indonesia

There are too many major tourist attractions to be found in Indonesia as the largest nation among the Southeast Asian nations. Those places are easily accessible by sea, air, and land, spread out on its 33 provinces of Indonesia. Tourists can find mostly anything in this country, from the metropolitan life of the Capital City of Jakarta, to the mystical enchanted rain forests and its natural beauty in Borneo Island. While Bali is usually the destination most familiar to foreign visitors, there is a wealth of other top tourist attractions in Indonesia to discover in this vast and varied country.

One article posted on http://www.touropia.com on April 2015 entitled “Top 10 Tourist Attractions in Indonesia” mentioned that as the largest archipelago country in the world, Indonesia has many things to offer to tourists, among the best places to be visited are: Lake Toba of North Sumatera, Tanjung Puting of Borneo, Baliem Valley of Western New Guinea, Mount Bromo of East Java, Toraja Land of South Sulawesi, Bunaken of North Sulawesi, Gili Islands of Nusa Tenggara Barat, Komodo National Park of Nusa Tenggara Timur, Borobudur of Yogyakarta, and Ubud of Bali.

Picture 3. Bunaken Island

The biggest problem of Indonesian tourism is infrastructure, including roads linking cities and towns with each other, which is sadly has prevented the growth of alternative tourist destinations in the country. Budi Tirtawisata, chief executive of Panorama Group, one of Indonesia’s leading tourism business groups, said 90 percent of local tourists in Indonesia came from Java and they usually traveled to other destinations on the island. He mentioned the fact to the reporter from http://thejakartaglobe.beritasatu.com.

A lack of infrastructure and connectivity to tourist attractions elsewhere in the country, other than in Bali, has resulted in more expensive costs for airfare, putting certain destinations out of reach for many Indonesians. These conditions encourage domestic tourists to travel to neighboring countries such as Singapore, where airfare is often cheaper than the cost to travel from Jakarta to cities such as Manado in North Sulawesi or to provinces such as Papua.

The article also said that according to Marc Steinmeyer, the president director of Tauzia Hotel Management, said Indonesia lacks skilled workers in the hospitality sector to keep up with the expansion of global hotel management companies across the country. Indonesia also needs to focus on marketing, working with travel agencies and promoting new travel destinations. Similar problems also existed in other countries across Southeast Asia, but they have become more pronounced in Indonesia because of the country’s rapid growth. The Government needs to work together with the tourism industry to promote the country’s tourism sector in order to compete with other Southeast Asian nations in the future.

Lao PDR

Lao PDR is a country as yet untouched by the modern demands. It is a stress-free and peaceful country with the beauty of the people and the century-old traditions and heritage. One of the most well-known tourist attractions in Lao PDR is Luang Prabang. Situated in the center of northern Laos, Luang Prabang is classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its outstanding cultural, historic and architectural values and its harmonious relationship between the natural and built environment. The official website of Lao’s tourism mentioned that visitors to Luang Prabang are charmed by the friendly atmosphere of this small town. The town itself offers several unique insights into the history of the region, through excellently preserved Buddhist temples, museum and night market.

Picture 4. Pha That Luang

As cited from a thesis by Bhoj Raj Kanal entitled “An Economic Analysis of the Lao PDR Tourism Industry”, Lao is one of some countries involved in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS), among others; Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and China (Yunnan and Guangxi Provinces). The GMS nations initiated an economic cooperation in 1992 by the governments concerned with the help of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to initiate broader economic activity in the sub-region.

Tourism is regarded as an important contributor to economic growth and employment creation in Lao PDR. The ADB (2008) reported tourism is an important sector in the Lao PDR’s socio-economic development plan for 2006-2010. Tourism-related industries also make a significant contribution to economic activity because they benefit from strong international visitor arrivals in Lao PDR (World Bank, 2009).

The research conducted by Kanal resulted in findings to provide some policy guidelines to the Lao PDR tourism stakeholders in developing the tourism sector in the country. Lao could formulate an effective tourism marketing and promotion strategy that requires increased attention. Tourism marketing and management are important because tourism businesses are better handled by the private sector and communities at large. The private sector can invest in the tourism primary sectors such as accommodation, food and beverages, entertainment and retail trade establishments, which are well inter-linked with the general economy. The projected employment and output of the tourism sector will aid in the planning and evaluation of tourism demand in the country. The agriculture and livestock, construction, retail trade, food and beverages, and banking and finance sectors should maximize their potential to produce the respective estimated outputs to meet the future tourism demand in the country.

Malaysia

Malaysia is a very vibrant and pleasant country to visit. Apart from being a wealthy nation, it has people from different religions and cultures co-existing as one on this beautiful land. Though the predominant religion here is Islam you will find Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, Christians and people of other religions residing here. The diversity of festivals celebrated in Malaysia reveals plurality in culture owing to the multi-ethnic and multi-religious population of the country. As mentioned previously, according to Mazumder, Sultana and Al-Mamun (2003) in their research, Malaysia received the highest number of visitor arrivals (203.2 million) during 2001-2011.

Picture 5. Petronas the Twin Tower

As cited from the tourism official website, http://www.tourismmalaysia.com.my/, Tourism Malaysia, also known as the Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board, is a governmental agency headed by Ng Yen Yen, the nation's minister of tourism. Since the country's economic crisis in the commodities markets in the 1990s, the tourism board has strived to increase tourism and its resulting boost to the economy. Compare to other tourism official website of Southeast Asian nations, Malaysia’s is definitely the best in terms of appearance and contents. It has more than 20 languages option to translate the content of the web, and it appears more modern, vibrant, and also luxurious. 

Malaysia is comprised of two land masses: a peninsula bordering Thailand and the northeastern section of nearby Borneo, an island. Visitors to both regions will enjoy a wide range of activities and receive a traditionally warm Malaysian welcome. Peninsula Malaysia is by far the bigger of the two provinces and offers tourists everything from fast-paced city life in the Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur, to relaxed holidays in east coast beach resorts. Malaysian Borneo is an untamed paradise, one of the few places in the world where visitors can still see orangutans living in the wild.

According to Norizawati Mohd Ayob and Tarmiji Masron in their research titled “Issues of Safety and Security: New Challenging to Malaysia Tourism Industry”, for Malaysia, the image as safety and secure destination was tarnished a few years lately and new unfortunates incident in this year bring more damage to Malaysia image. Healthy issues, terrorism, repeated kidnapping and shooting in Sabah, twin airlines incident, riot and illegal demonstration and false reporting by international media brings new challenging to Malaysia. Although some incident may be had short-term impact to Malaysia tourism industry, but it’s still gave the big impact to Malaysia branding process. Many travellers and Malaysian itself still believe that Malaysia is a one of safer destination and country to visit and stayed in, but more outstanding efforts was require to make sure Malaysia tourism industry was capable to recover from this negative impact as soon as possible.

Myanmar

Myanmar is sometimes called ‘the Land of Pagodas’. But Myanmar has more than just pagodas to delight the traveller. This historic wonderland has just about everything that makes for a memorable cultural experience: colorful bazaars, classic handicrafts, magnificent pagodas and stupas, traditional tribes, exquisite gems, enchanting festivals and dances that bring to life the legends of old- a world of Golden Sights

Picture 6. The Shwedagon Pagoda

Tourists can find many things in Myanmar, from ancient cities to dazzling Buddhist temples, from unspoiled beaches to the beautiful countryside. It is easy to see the attraction of the country to international visitors. An article posted on http://www.bbc.com by Kayleigh Long entitled “Myanmar's young tourism entrepreneurs” stated that since almost five decades of rule by a military junta came to an end in Myanmar in 2011, a growing number of tourists are choosing to visit this South East Asian nation.

A research conducted by Ko Ko Thett entitled “Responsible Tourism in Myanmar: Current Situation and Challenges”, in 2013 when Myanmar became the host of 27th Southeast Asian Games, Myanmar tourism authorities are anxious to meet the demand of foreign guests arriving for the games by building over 50 hotels across the country.

The research also mentioned several types of tourism which have potentials and perils in Myanmar;

1. Spiritual Journeys/Commodification of Buddhism

Traditionally Burma/Myanmar had been known as a top destination for Teravada Buddhist meditation. This type of tourism, if marketed and managed with care, can be the most sustainable form of tourism, providing both visitor satisfaction and host communities’ development.

2. Enclave Tourism/Heritage Attractions

Most forms of tourism in Myanmar are enclave tourism. The government and crony businesses have been developing a tourist route especially to cater to enclave tourism, where tourists can go with relative ease to must-see places in the country.

3. Ethnic Tourism

Myanmar’s tourism authorities and businessmen have been staging ‘authenticity’ in this area of tourism in the past. In promotional materials, ethnic peoples in their villages are seen in festive dress and in festive mood performing for tourists all time of the year.

4. Ecotourism

The three key elements of ecotourism are nature-based destination, learning-focused interaction between the tourists and the natural attraction, and environmental, social-cultural sustainability.

5. Sex Tourism

The UNWTO (United Nations of World Tourism Organization) defines sex tourism as ‘trips organized from within the tourism sector, or from outside this sector but using its structures and networks, with the primary purpose of effecting a commercial sexual relationship by the tourist with residents at the destination

6. War Tourism/Morbid Tourism.

Morbid tourism happens when people go to see unpleasant sights. There is an abundance of poverty and suffering in Myanmar if tourists are to be interested in morbid tourism

With the country's tourism industry still in such an early state, it means tremendous opportunities for young Burmese entrepreneurs. And despite continuing problems in the country - such as sectarian violence between majority Rakhine Buddhists and minority Rohingya Muslims - most young businessmen and women in the tourism sector are very optimistic about the future. However the business is still need to be conducted in a more professional way.

Singapore

Singapore is famous for shopping, outdoor activities, dining, and entertainment. According to a paper from Tourism Industry Conference 2013 by Singapore Tourism Board entitled “Navigating the Next Phase of Tourism Growth”, tourism plays a key role in reinforcing Singapore’s status as a vibrant global city that is a magnet for capital, business, and talent. The tourism sector currently contributes to 4 percent of Singapore’s gross domestic product and supports some 160.000 jobs.

Picture 7. Singapore Attractions

Over the past few years Singapore tourism sector has been growing robustly. Some of the most tourists’ attractions in Singapore that are considered as the world-class attractions are; Universal Studios Singapore, Singapore Zoo, Formula One Singapore Grand Prix, and the shopping arcades in the Orchard Road. Not to mention the numerous music concert performed by international singer or band that took place in Singapore. This has surely attracts more and more international tourists to come to Singapore.

According to an article publish on http://www.straitstimes.com, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong stated that Singapore's tourism industry can expect new challenges in the next 50 years. In order to overcome competition from other destinations and a labor shortage, the country needs to invest in capabilities, refresh its attractions and deepen its engagement with locals.

Thailand

Thailand is one country among the ten ASEAN Countries which radiates culture and historical hue through its ancient glittering temples, and exotic-tropical radiant from its beautiful beaches as well as the comforting Thai smile from its friendly people. It is located in the heart of Southeast Asia, divided into five regions: the North, the Northeast, the Central, the East, and the South.

Picture 8. Phiphi Island

The official name of the country is Kingdom of Thailand, the word Thai itself means free, so basically Thailand means land of the free. The 70 million of population is spread out in 76 provinces with Bangkok as capital city. 90% of Thai people are Buddhist, and they talk in Thai language with two different dialects; South and North, they also have their own alphabet.

It is the only country in Southeast Asia region that has never been taken over by other nation in colonization. The country is ruled by King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) who is highly respected by all the people. We can see the picture of the King and the Queen all across the nation like in shops, banks, schools, etc.

There are plenty of tourists’ attractions in Thailand. According to the official tourism website of Thailand, http://www.tourismthailand.org, some of the most visited areas in Thailand are Bangkok, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Phuket, and Chanthaburi.  

The Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) members are concerned that Thailand may be losing its competitive tourism edge in the international marketplace, as cited from a report on ‘Challenges to Thailand’s Competitive Tourism Position’ by the Minister of Tourism and Sport of Thailand. In order to improve services to the tourists, better facilities in the international airports and to simplify the entry/exit procedures for Immigration at the international airports are needed. Good and availability of transportation facilities, as well as sustainable tourism promotion and marketing would also contribute to the betterment of tourism industry in Thailand.

The Philippines

As mentioned in an article by Joan C Henderson, published on Tourismos: an International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism, entitled “Tourism Development and Politics in the Philippines”, The Philippines has a rich diversity of attractions, yet its performance as an international tourist destination remains disappointing and appears to be linked to the country’s history of political instability.

Ranked 90 out of 177 countries in the United Nations Human Development Index (UNDP, 2008), the Philippines is placed 37 in the list of 108 developing nations with regard to human poverty. Deprivation at home helps to explain the number of nationals working abroad, calculated to be 7.5 million with an additional three million undocumented. International tourism has expanded rapidly throughout Asia Pacific in recent decades, often at a faster pace than in other regions of the world, although the global recession which commenced in 2008 has depressed demand and investment. However, the pattern in the Philippines was irregular prior to the current slowdown and does not conform to general trends.

Picture 9. Trekking at the mountainous forests of the Philippines

To exploit some of its natural and cultural heritage, the Philippines has some efforts to promote the relaxing coastal vacations, usually at self-contained integrated resorts, opportunities are advertised for reef, scuba and wreck diving as well as snorkeling, surfing, sailing and swimming with whales. Terrestrial ecosystems, flora and fauna and mountainous landscapes support non-marine ecotourism and adventure.

Vietnam

Vietnam, a one-party communist state, is situated on the mainland of Southeast Asia and share borders with Cambodia, Lao, and China. According to an article published on http://www.bbc.com entitled “Vietnam Country Profile – Overview”, Vietnam is one of south-east Asia's fastest-growing economies and has set its sights on becoming a developed nation by 2020.

In terms of tourism, Vietnam has Ha Long Bay and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park as World Natural Heritages. Vietnam has long coastline stretching from north to south, which makes beach tourism is in a position of strength for the nation. Many of its beaches are ideal for water sports like windsurfing, boat racing, parasailing, and scuba diving through beautiful coral reefs and schools of fish. Vietnam also has numerous islands and archipelagos, like the beautiful Phu Quoc, as well as Con Dao with Mangrove forests and historic relics.

Picture 10. Ha Long Bay

According to a dissertation by Bee Chin Ng entitled “Tourism and Economic Development in Vietnam”, it is good to have a clear mindset of goals for Vietnam. However, it is worth reminding the world that China is now the world’s biggest industrialized country, and it would be difficult to compete with China with their low cost production and the vast availability of labor. Thus, the dissertation suggests that Vietnam can be a complement to China rather than be competition to China in industrialization. As for tourism industry, each country will be unique with their environmental assets and that Vietnam do has some comparative advantages. Having seen what Vietnam has to offer and what the future holds for the both international and intra-regional tourism industry, it looks promising for Vietnamese tourist industry.

ASEAN Plus Three

No single country or region in this world could live alone without any interaction and cooperation with others, so does ASEAN. A Press Statement by the Chairman of the 7th ASEAN Summit and the 5th ASEAN + 3 Summit Brunei Darussalam, 5 November 2001 clearly mentioned that in the current climate of intense global uncertainty, Southeast Asia faces its biggest, if not the biggest, challenge since ASEAN was founded in 1967. Many issues has emerged within the region, such as; combating terrorism, battling HIV/AIDS or other diseases, and stimulating domestic economies. These challenges offer a unique opportunity for ASEAN to work even closer together. ASEAN is determined to strengthen competitiveness and accelerate regional integration. Identifying these new priorities, ASEAN also believes to respond decisively to longer term challenges facing Southeast Asia through strengthening the cooperation with three other Asian biggest forces: China, Japan, and Korea.

With the new colleagues from China, Japan and Korea, ASEAN exchanged views on terrorism and strongly condemned the attacks happened all over the world. ASEAN confirmed that political stability, economic well-being and development in the region are crucial foundations in the fight against international terrorism. China, Japan and Korea supported the efforts to accelerate ASEAN integration, especially in the areas of human resource development, infrastructure and information technology.

The Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS)

The studies of Rogerson (2004) and Chang (1998) mentioned that the greater expansion and economic impact of tourism rely on how countries within the region cooperate and support each other rather than competing. Regional development through tourism will be obvious and occur where regional countries are prepared to collaborate, cooperate and support as partners. This has been collaboratively acknowledged by Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia which are involved in ACMECS – the economic cooperation framework known as the ‘Ayeyawady-Chao Phraya-Mekong Economic Cooperation Strategy’.

The third meeting of the ACMECS Tourism Working Group meeting was discussing the enhancement of the intra-regional cooperation on tourism sector. The meeting centered on the promotion and advertising of a common tourism-market in the region with the ‘Five Countries, One Tourism Destination’ strategy. This will facilitate tourist transits at international borders and connect flights among the member nations with international flights.

As stated in the report about the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) Tourism Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map by Asian Development Bank (ADB), to harmonize the overall sub-regional tourism planning framework and complement national tourism development plans, ADB assisted the GMS countries prepare the regional tourism sector strategy (RTSS) in 2005. The main objectives of the RTSS are to:

1. develop quality sub-regional tourism products that spread the benefits of tourism widely;
2. promote the GMS as a single destination;
3. add to the tourism development efforts of each GMS country;
4. contribute to poverty reduction, gender equality and empowerment of women, and sustainable development; and
5. minimize the negative impacts of tourism.

The RTSS includes 29 priority projects and seven strategic programs focusing on:

1. marketing and product development,
2. human resource development,
3. heritage conservation and social impact management,
4. pro-poor tourism development,
5. private sector participation,
6. facilitation of the movement of tourists within the sub-region, and
7. tourism-related infrastructure development

References

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